{"id":32575,"date":"2026-08-30T09:41:06","date_gmt":"2026-08-30T16:41:06","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/vilni-media.com\/?p=32575"},"modified":"2026-08-30T09:44:41","modified_gmt":"2026-08-30T16:44:41","slug":"vid-shakhtariv-do-politychnykh-emihrantiv-iak-formuvalasia-ukrainska-hromada-u-ssha","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/vilni-media.com\/en\/2026\/08\/30\/vid-shakhtariv-do-politychnykh-emihrantiv-iak-formuvalasia-ukrainska-hromada-u-ssha\/","title":{"rendered":"From miners to political emigrants: how the Ukrainian community in the USA was formed\u00a0"},"content":{"rendered":"
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The mass migration of Ukrainians to the USA began in the 1870s and was primarily due to economic difficulties and the search for work. After World War I, the nature of migration changed: people associated with the Ukrainian liberation struggle began to arrive in the USA, as well as specialists, workers and peasants who were looking for better living conditions. This is how the first and second waves of Ukrainian immigration to the USA were formed.<\/span><\/p>

The first wave: the search for work and better economic opportunities<\/b><\/h3>

The first mass wave of Ukrainian immigration began after the Civil War in the USA, during the Second Industrial Revolution. The American economy was rapidly transitioning from agricultural to industrial, which is why the country needed a large number of workers.<\/span><\/p>

This was reported by <\/span>M. Kuropas<\/span><\/a>.<\/span><\/p>

Agents of shipping companies and representatives of American corporations began to actively search for workers in Central and Eastern Europe. Czechs, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, Poles, and Ukrainians were recruited to the United States.<\/span><\/p>

In the early 1870s, mass immigration began from three regions of Western Ukraine \u2013 Transcarpathia, Bukovina, and Galicia, which were then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Significantly fewer immigrants came from Eastern Ukraine, which was under the rule of the Russian Empire. Among the first Ukrainians to go to the United States were Lemkos, who learned about the possibilities of resettlement from Poles, who had begun to arrive en masse in America earlier.<\/span><\/p>

The main reason for emigration was the difficult economic situation. Population growth led to a decrease in land holdings, and high taxes, interest on loans, and debts reduced the incomes of peasants. In 1891, the average daily wage of a peasant was from 12 cents in Galicia to 15 cents in Bukovina.<\/span><\/p>

How Ukrainians were recorded in American statistics<\/b><\/h3>

It is difficult to determine the exact number of Ukrainian immigrants of the first wave today due to the peculiarities of ethnic self-identification at that time. At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, the names \u201cRus\u201d and \u201cRuthenians\u201d were gradually replaced by the names \u201cUkraine\u201d and \u201cUkrainians\u201d. However, this process was slow among the rural population of Galicia and Bukovina.<\/span><\/p>

Therefore, Ukrainian immigrants often called themselves \u201cRusyns\u201d or \u201cRusnaks\u201d. At first, American officials translated this as \u201cRussian\u201d, which caused confusion with Russians. Only after 1900 did the more accurate English term \u201cRuthenian\u201d begin to be used more widely.<\/span><\/p>

The situation was further complicated by the fact that the settlers from Transcarpathia called themselves \u201cUgro-Ruthenians.\u201d In addition, some Ukrainians identified themselves primarily by their religious affiliation \u2013 as Greek Catholics. Some American immigration agents mistakenly perceived them as people of Greek origin because of this.<\/span><\/p>

Until 1899, immigrants were registered by the country that issued their passport. Because of this, Ruthenians were often recorded as Austrians or Russians. In 1899, the American immigration authorities and the Census Bureau officially introduced the definition \u201cRuthenian,\u201d but errors in statistics continued.<\/span><\/p>

According to official data, 254,376 Ruthenian immigrants arrived in the United States in 1899\u20131914. About 87% of them, or 202,211 people, settled in Pennsylvania, New York, and New Jersey.<\/span><\/p>

Ukrainian researcher Julian Bachynsky tried to reconstruct the real scale of the migration. According to his estimates, 33,890 Ukrainian-Ruthenians arrived in the United States in 1877\u20131887, and another 74,380 in 1888\u20131898. Taking into account the peculiarities of the statistics of that time, Bachynsky assumed that about 284,400 Ukrainians emigrated to the United States during the years 1899\u20131909.<\/span><\/p>

Taking into account mortality, the return of some migrants to Europe, re-immigration, and children born in the United States, he estimated the number of first and second generation Ukrainians in the United States as of 1909 at approximately 468,930 people.<\/span><\/p>

Father I. Ardan, for his part, noted: \u201ceven according to the most conservative estimates, the number of Ukrainians in the United States was not less than 350 thousand.\u201d<\/span><\/p>

Given the subsequent influx of migrants, it can be assumed that by 1914 the number of first- and second-generation Ukrainians in the United States was at least 500,000. At the same time, the Encyclopedia of Ukraine estimates the number of Ukrainians who emigrated to the United States in 1870\u20131914 at 350,000.<\/span><\/p>

From mines to industrial centers<\/b><\/h3>

The first Ukrainian immigrants mostly did not have higher education or professional qualifications. According to the US Immigration Bureau for 1905, out of 14,470 Ruthenian immigrants, only seven had higher education. Among them were four priests, a lawyer, a musician, and a teacher.<\/span><\/p>

Another 209 people were skilled workers - blacksmiths, bakers, carpenters, and representatives of other professions. The vast majority, 12,854 people, worked in unskilled jobs, primarily in agriculture and domestic service.<\/span><\/p>

A significant number of men worked in the anthracite mines of northeastern Pennsylvania in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Many initially viewed their stay in the United States as temporary: to earn money, buy land, and return to Ukraine.<\/span><\/p>

In 1910, a miner earned between $2 and $5 for 9\u201310 hours of work. At the same time, working conditions remained extremely difficult, and exploitation of workers was widespread.<\/span><\/p>

Before the arrival of the Ukrainians, this region was already known for large-scale strikes, in particular at the Homestead and Lattimer mines. Workers demanded higher wages and improved working conditions. A significant number of early strikes ended in defeat. Ukrainians were often used as strikebreakers, which made them victims of attacks by strikers.<\/span><\/p>

Housing conditions were also difficult. Workers lived in dilapidated premises, where kitchens could be located in basements, and bedrooms were dark and crowded. There was often no proper access to drinking water and sanitation. During double shifts, two workers could take turns using one bed.<\/span><\/p>

An additional problem were the so-called company stores. Workers had to buy goods from stores owned by the mine owners, and prices there were often higher than in city stores.<\/span><\/p>

By 1914, Ukrainians were not limited to Pennsylvania. Ukrainian communities had sprung up in West Virginia, particularly around Wheeling, in southeastern Ohio, in Illinois near Ziegler, in Texas around Bremond, and in Wyoming and North Dakota.<\/span><\/p>

Ukrainians worked in coal mines, in zinc and lead mines in Missouri, and in iron and copper mining in Minnesota and northern Michigan. In 1905, over 500 Ukrainian families lived in Denver.<\/span><\/p>

In the late 1890s and early 1900s, more and more Ukrainians left the mining regions and moved to large industrial centers. Among them were Boston, Hartford, New York, Jersey, Rochester, Newark, Philadelphia, Youngstown, Gary, Chicago, Detroit, Milwaukee, St. Louis, Minneapolis, and Omaha.<\/span><\/p>

There, Ukrainian workers found work in the glass, rubber, steel, iron, steam locomotive, textile, automobile, and furniture industries, and in sugar factories and mills. Wages ranged from one dollar for a nine-hour day for an unskilled worker to five dollars for a ten-hour day for a skilled steelworker.<\/span><\/p>

Women in the First Wave of Immigration<\/b><\/h3>

It wasn\u2019t just men who came to the United States. According to U.S. immigration statistics for 1910\u20131915, 16,750 women aged 14 to 29 came to the United States from Ukraine over a five-year period.<\/span><\/p>

Their lives were often particularly difficult. In the mining areas, married women cooked for the workers while their husbands worked in the mines. In the cities, they worked as maids, nannies, waitresses, laundresses, or in factories.<\/span><\/p>

Women worked in soap, cigar, shoe, and paper factories. Their earnings ranged from 50 cents to $1.25 for a ten-hour workday.<\/span><\/p>

The Church as the Center of Ukrainian Life<\/b><\/h3>

Gradually, Ukrainian immigrants began to create their own communities. Greek Catholic priests played an important role in this process.<\/span><\/p>

The first church communities arose in the towns of Shenandoah, Shamokin, and Oliphant in the mining areas of eastern Pennsylvania. Churches became not only religious but also socio-cultural centers.<\/span><\/p>

They created choirs, musical orchestras, reading rooms, and Ukrainian studies schools for children and youth. The Ukrainian press was also distributed here. It was the church and community centers that became the basis of organized Ukrainian life in the United States.<\/span><\/p>

The Second Wave: Political and Postwar Emigration<\/b><\/h3>

The second wave of Ukrainian immigration began after World War I. In 1918\u20131921, Ukraine briefly became an independent and united state, but after the war, Ukrainian lands were divided between four states.<\/span><\/p>

Eastern Galicia came under the control of Poland, Bukovina went to Romania, Subcarpathian Rus' went to Czechoslovakia, and Eastern Ukraine came under the control of Soviet Russia. Later, a Soviet regime was established on the territory of Soviet Ukraine and the Ukrainian SSR became part of the USSR.<\/span><\/p>

Ukrainians from Poland, Romania, and Czechoslovakia were still able to emigrate, while after 1924, departure from the USSR was effectively prohibited.<\/span><\/p>

At the same time, the United States significantly changed its immigration legislation. The new rules limited the influx of immigrants from Eastern and Southern Europe by establishing quotas for various ethnic and racial groups.<\/span><\/p>

Ukrainians found themselves in a difficult position, since in the American censuses of 1890 and 1910 they were not even recognized as a separate nationality. Therefore, they did not have their own quota. Some Ukrainian immigrants were counted in the quota of another nationality, and some in the categories outside the quota if they had professional skills needed by the American economy.<\/span><\/p>

More educated and nationally conscious emigration<\/b><\/h3>

Unlike the first wave, among the post-war immigrants there were more people with a higher level of education and a developed Ukrainian national consciousness. Many were directly connected with the struggle for Ukrainian statehood - as soldiers, participants in the liberation struggle, or people who survived the events of 1918\u20131921.<\/span><\/p>

According to immigration researcher V. Halych, in 1921\u20131930 about 8,210 Ukrainians emigrated to the United States, and in 1931\u20131936 - another 590. The largest number of immigrants settled in Michigan, Illinois, Pennsylvania, New York, and Minnesota.<\/span><\/p>

The Encyclopedia of Ukraine estimates the total number of Ukrainians who arrived in the United States from Romania, Czechoslovakia, and Poland between 1919 and 1935 at approximately 11,000.<\/span><\/p>

The second wave is often referred to as \u201cmilitary\u201d or \u201crifle\u201d immigration. Its numbers were relatively small, but the level of national consciousness among these immigrants was high.<\/span><\/p>

Many served in the Ukrainian army and ended up in Central Europe after the war. They mostly settled in Detroit, Chicago, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and Minneapolis.<\/span><\/p>

However, not all of the second wave were military. Among them were professionals who could not find work in the occupied Ukrainian territories, peasants, skilled workers, and people who sought a better life. Some left because of the growing anti-Ukrainian sentiment in the territories under Polish and Romanian control.<\/span><\/p>

The Ukrainian community expands beyond the mining regions<\/b><\/h3>

After World War I, changes also occurred among the representatives of the first wave. Some Ukrainians left the mining regions of Pennsylvania and moved to large cities, where earnings were higher.<\/span><\/p>

Their children, seeking new opportunities, gradually spread to different regions of the United States. From 1921, the mines ceased to be the main source of work for Ukrainian immigrants.<\/span><\/p>

Thus, over the course of several decades, the Ukrainian presence in the United States went from scattered groups of seasonal and industrial workers to organized communities with their own churches, schools, cultural institutions, and press. The first wave laid the demographic and organizational foundation of the Ukrainian diaspora, while the second brought a new level of political and national consciousness.<\/span>
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Photo: <\/b>M. Kuropas<\/span><\/a>.<\/span>
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Author: Danylo Pievchev<\/p>\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t

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read us in<\/h2>\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t<\/div>\n\t\t\t\t
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The mass migration of Ukrainians to the USA began in the 1870s and was primarily due to economic difficulties and the search for work...<\/p>","protected":false},"author":253017329,"featured_media":32569,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"_jetpack_newsletter_access":"","_jetpack_dont_email_post_to_subs":false,"_jetpack_newsletter_tier_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paywalled_content":false,"_wpcom_ai_launchpad_first_post":false,"_jetpack_feature_clip_id":0,"_jetpack_memberships_contains_paid_content":false,"footnotes":"","jetpack_publicize_message":"{title}\n\n{excerpt}\n\n{url}","jetpack_publicize_feature_enabled":true,"jetpack_social_post_already_shared":true,"jetpack_social_options":{"image_generator_settings":{"template":"highway","default_image_id":0,"font":"","enabled":false},"version":2},"_wpas_customize_per_network":false,"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false},"categories":[1460,1475,1493,1359],"tags":[1531],"class_list":["post-32575","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-history","category-important","category-danylo-pievchev","category-news","tag-danylo-pievchev"],"yoast_head":"\n\u0412\u0456\u0434 \u0448\u0430\u0445\u0442\u0430\u0440\u0456\u0432 \u0434\u043e \u043f\u043e\u043b\u0456\u0442\u0438\u0447\u043d\u0438\u0445 \u0435\u043c\u0456\u0433\u0440\u0430\u043d\u0442\u0456\u0432: \u044f\u043a \u0444\u043e\u0440\u043c\u0443\u0432\u0430\u043b\u0430\u0441\u044f \u0443\u043a\u0440\u0430\u0457\u043d\u0441\u044c\u043a\u0430 \u0433\u0440\u043e\u043c\u0430\u0434\u0430 \u0443 \u0421\u0428\u0410\u00a0 - 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